Motivation to Learn: Teacher-Student Relationship

Motivation to arrest Teacher-Student RelationshipIt is a universally accepted right that the future lies in the hands of the next generation and that the conquest of the next generation is based largely on education. Increasing numbers of reports and articles in the media s internality been published over the last several years showing that education of the next generation in the U.S. is lacking. The long-standing super power stands to lose its status on the global playing field, threatening the way America has come to see itself and its role in the world. These trends piss caused panic and politicians have claimed a rededication of their efforts in this bowling ball because that is what the nation is crying for. However, while the whimsey that U.S. bookmans argon falling behind the world pedantically is wide-spread, and fact that this is an undesirable circumstance to be in is unanimous, no single concrete solution has emerged.The leading get down is currently raising sta ndards as rat be measured according to standardize tests. The idea is that without a quantifiable measure of progress cultivates cannot know whether they atomic number 18 improving and that by seeing how they are doing in comparison to separate schools, they will be propel to make even greater strides. It has been suggested that an emphasis on assimilator pauperism may be far more than than valuable than an emphasis on which particularised facts theyve memorized from American history or which functions they can calculate in mathematics. While it may be somewhat counterintuitive to argue that education is best improve by focusing on something beside the material the students are expected to light upon, many studies have shown that this very well might be the case. This is, in brief, due to the fact that propel students learn more, learn better, and learn themselves. That is to say, the tradeoff is more than worth it To dedicate some percentage of a teachers time and efforts to motivating students will submit at the end of the day to those students having learned a lot more than if that same time and effort was authoriseed in conventional transfer of knowledge methods, or far worse, test preparation.Accordingly, many researchers have conducted a considerable number of studies on students donnish want and students goal preference, particularly those who concentrate on the dynamics of need within schoolroom roofytings, have started to emphasize the potential role of relational variables ( e.g., Davis, 2003 Pianta, 1999) and teacher behaviors (e.g., Skinner Belmont, 1993) in students academic engagement. In the last 40 years, researches (e.g., Pintrich, 2001, Skinner, 1995, Stipek, 1988) have studied student want and, have found a great deal almost What moves students to learn and the quantity and look of the effort they invest?, What choices students make?, What makes them persist in the baptistery of bafflingship?, How student wan t is affected by their relationships with significant adults?, How demand develops?, and How the school environs affects it?. Accordingly, educators, parents, and students have gainful substantial attention to the importance of motivation in school because of significant contri butions to students academic scholarship, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and school readiness.Motivation to learn is a competence acquired through general experience however, it is mostly stimulated through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or affectionateization by significant others (Brophy, 1987). Infants and young children appear to be mobilized by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and discover their environment. In the schoolroom settings, the content covered and the social context can vary continuously. Therefore, children are frequently involved in unfamiliar learning environment. This can create ambiguity for some students however can cra te challenge for other students. Accordingly, students probe to make sense of novel learning situations by referring to their motivational beliefs (Brophy, 1987). Motivational belief refers to the opinions, judgments, and determine that students hold about objects, events, and learning process (Brophy, 1987). Motivational belief also refers to the students opinions of the efficacy or effectiveness of learning and teaching process. For example, childrens beliefs about their academic experiences have grievous implications for their school adjustment and academic exploit ( Mueller Dweck, 1998 Wigfield Eccles, 2002). Accordingly, expectancies and values are straight off unconquerable by other achievement related beliefs (e.g., achievement goals, self-schemata, beliefs about science (Wigfield, 1994). Similarly, motivational beliefs act as a fix of reference that guides students thinking, feelings, and actions in any subject area. For example, motivational beliefs about mathemati cs determine which strategies and motivational goals students develop. It is crucial that a students beliefs about a domain may be predominantly optimistic or pessimistic, thus providing a irresponsible or negative context for learning ( Skinner, 1995 Stipek, 1988 Vermeer, Boekaerts, Seegers, 2000).Teacher-child relations play a big role in the teaching of competencies in earlyish school-age years (Pianta, Steinberg, Rollins, 1995 Pianta Walsh, 1996) and transition to middle school (Davis. 2003 Pianta, 1999). Teacher may operate as social agents, and they can affect the students intellectual and sociemotional experiences by creating a classroom setting that stimulates both students motivation and learning. Moreover teacher-student relationships serve as a regulatory function for the information of social, emotional, and academic skills (Davis, 2006). Studies have shown that absolute teacher-student relationships can lead to a warm classroom environment that facilitates succ eederful adaptation in school and in that locationby emergence students motivation to learn. On the other hand, conflictual teacher-student relationships are associated with lower achievement and self-esteem as well as ongoing relational conflict with both teachers and peers (Pianta Hamre, 2005 Buyse, Verschueren, Doumen, Damme, Maes, 2008). question has further indicated that children with whom teachers report positive relationships are outgoing and socially competent (Pianta, et. all., 1995 Birch Ladd, 1998). Moreover, the teachers believed that high quality relationships between teachers and their students enhanced classroom learning and motivation by building a safe and clogive classroom context for students to open up and listen to the teachers and take intellectual risks (Pianta, et al., 1995 Birch Ladd, 1998).Similarly, the beliefs teachers hold about teaching and learning, and the nature of expectations have about their students also exert a powerful influence (Stipe k, 1988). These findings support the line role of teacher-student relationships on childrens motivation to learn and school adjustment.The various studies examined the influence of family, academic, and personal genes on the students academic failure and poor motivation to learn (e.g., Covington, 1992). Among personal variables most studied are self-concept, unfavorable motivational beliefs, low ability, and personal goal orientation (Ryan Deci, 2000 Stipek, 2002). For example, unfavorable beliefs impede the learning process because they direct the learners attention away from learning activity itself (Stipek, 1998 Ryan, Gheen, Midgley, 1998). Similarly, the students themselves impute to poor cognitive process to low ability and to luck (Stipek, 2002) and an improvement in exercise to motivation ( project-goal orientation), to self-regulating behaviors, and to competence as a function of task characteristics ( Stipek, 2002). Most students believe their ability and effort are the main reasons for school achievement. By the same token, if asked whether they would prefer to be called smart or hard-working, they will ingest smart almost every time. Why? Because they believe that hard-working students risk being considered either excessively ambitious or of limited ability, both of which they would find embarrassing.The succeeding(a) literature review covers the significance of young childrens motivation to learn, the effect of the quality of teacher-student relationships on their motivation to learn, the implications of poorly motivated young students on their social and academic life. Firstly, both relevant theoretical frameworks are introduced self-determination and expectancy and value theory. These theories provide the basis of the rationale for the present study and frame the possible bridging presage from the problem to where the attempted solutions until this point failed, and what is worth trying next.Theoretical ConsiderationsFurther understa nding of the topics of motivation and learning is facilitated through the lenses of various theoretical frameworks. These frameworks shed shrewdness on the bigger picture of motivation and learning and are helpful guides in developing practical new tone-beginninges to the classroom. Three major relevant theories are discussed below self-determination and value-expectancy for achievement motivation As children continue their social, emotional, and physical development during school years, they broaden their familial and extra-familial relationships (Marvin Stewart, 1990). Participation in family-child, teacher-child, and peer-child system of ruless supports the development of play, social interaction, and conflict resolution skills for those children (Lynch Cicchetti, 1992 Pianta, 1999).Self-System and Self-Determination TheoriesSelf-determination theorists (e.g., Ryan, Connell, Deci) claim that children start to value the behaviors for which they and significant others (i.e., te achers, families) in their social environments are reinforced. When these values are accepted as their own (internalization), students begin to choose to engage in activities that are arranged with their own feelings (Deci Ryan, 2001).Similarly, according to self-determination theory, children learn from their parents and other significant adults that achievement behaviors and motivation to learn are valued in the society. Some children internalize these values and behaviors as their own and begin to behave in ways that are consistent with them (Connell, 1990). Accordingly, Connell (1990) posits that the need for relatedness, the need for competence, and the need for autonomy are the most important psychological needs in the framework of self-system processes. The self-system theory of engagement assumes that human beings have basic psychological needs and can be motivated to engage in activities passionately and voluntarily when those needs are met (Connell Well natural, 1991). In addition, in the self- system process, the self evaluates the degree to which psychological needs are met and this evaluation may affect relationships with others (Connell, 1990 ). Self-determination theory shares this perspective (Davis, 2001 Deci Ryan, 1985) and has also contributed to the construct definition of relatedness by proposing that individuals innate needs (e.g., the need for competence, the need for relatedness, and the need for autonomy) must be fulfilled to achieve self-regulation, motivation, and personal well-being. Deci and Ryan (1985) dressd the need for relatedness as feelings of security or belongingness in the social environment that motivate individuals to follow norms and rules. Moreover, all triplet needs are interrelated. For example, relatedness provides the security that is necessary for student initiative, independence, and autonomy in complementary tasks that promote competence.Competence enables students to feel confident, accepted, and related to those around them. The healthy fulfillment of these basic needs provides a social environment that regulates the amount of acceptance and success (Urdan Schoenfelder, 2006 Deci Ryan, 2002). The teacher-student relationship is a very important and a powerful motivator for the development of the need for competence and autonomy within this social environment, because school as a complex and unique system asks students to accomplish various intellectual and social tasks. For example, a growing body of studies showed that students, who believed that they are competent academically, are more likely to be interested in academic and school tasks ( Stipek Daniels,1991 Skaalvik Rankin, 1995). Similarly, for teachers, supporting childrens basic psychological needs and provide a healthy classroom environment also promote more positive teacher-student relationships. Within this type of environment, students report greater levels of competence, autonomy, and positive relatedness (Connell Wellborn, 1991 Standage, Duda, Ntoumanis, 2005 Urdan Schoenfelder, 2006 Deci Ryan, 2002).Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement MotivationAnother important alternative and complementary theoretical view of students motivation to learn in educational settings is expectancy-value theory (Atkinson, 1957 Eccles, Adler, Goff, Kaczala, Meece, Midgley, 1983). Eccles and her colleagues (1983) studies values in the context of an expanded expectancy- value theory. This model is consisted of two components a psychological component which focuses on cognitive factors such as expectations for success and the values placed on successful attainment, and a socialization component which explains individual differences that occur within the variables of the psychological component (Eccles et al., 1983). A major premise of this model involves the influence of parental socialization on childrens motivation ( Eccles et al., 1983 Wigfield, 1994). exchangeable Atkinson (1957), they posited that pe ople choose to engage in tasks that they value and in which they expect to be successful. However, Eccles et al. (1983) conceptualized and defined values more broadly than Atkinson (1957). Similarly, they proposed that there are three kinds of values (e.g., attainment value, utility value, intrinsic value) relevant to achievement ( Jacobs Eccles, 2000 Wigfield Eccles, 1992). Attainment value refers to the relevance of an activity to a persons actual or ideal self-concept, and it is determined by how tasks satisfy peoples needs (Eccles et al., 1983). Accordingly, attainment value is the most closely related to internalized motivation in self-determination theory. Utility value is related to the profit of a task as a means to accomplish goals that may not be linked to the task itself. Intrinsic value is defined as the immediate enjoyment people get from doing a task. In other words, as a task has intrinsic value , people engage in for its own pastime, rather than for some other pu rpose (Wigfield Eccles, 1992). Furthermore, Eccles et al. (1983) pointed out that values need to be considered in the context of costs such as that disappointment if failure occurs.Motivation for Academic AchievementIf testing is not the way to get students to learn, what is? It has been proposed that the single factor with the greatest impact on whether a student learns is his or her motivation. As mentioned above, motivation is considered one of, if not the, most important factors influencing students learning. Qin Xiaoqing (2002) found that the presence of absence of motivation is in large part what determines success or failure in second language learning. This is because motivated students use learning strategies more frequently, have a stronger will to learn and so set more and higher goals for themselves, and they are more persistent in learning. Qin (2003) found that learning motivation influences the learners autonomous learning ability, and determines the learners confid ence in overcoming learning difficulty. These theories on motivation question that motivation, as one of the crucial factors determining the success in language learning, attracts much attention of the researchers (Li Pan, 2009).What is motivation? While polar theorists define motivation differently, motivation is commonly thought of as an inner state of need or desire that activates an individual to do something to satisfy them. In other words, motivation is the force that accounts for the arousal, selection, direction, and continuation of behavior (Li Pan, 2009). Williams and Burden (2000) proposed the definition of motivation as a state of cognitive and emotional arousal that leads to a informed decision to act, and which causes the exertion of intellectual and physical effort towards reaching a previously set goal. In day to day language, motivation is why we do what we do. Therefore, it is clear why so much education research is focused on motivating students If motivation is why we do what we do, only a motivated student will learn. It is increasingly accepted in the literature that motivation is more important to a childs education than any other single factor including the teachers skill/experience, classroom resources, etc.What role does motivation play in achievement? It has been argued that motivation is not only the key ingredient for outstanding work, but also in extraordinary achievement. The claim is that creative genius grows out of the ability to sustain intense commitment for very long periods in the face of obstacles-in other words, motivation (Runco, Nemiro, Walberg, 1998). However, on the other hand is the widespread believe that accomplishment, and especially outstanding accomplishment, is about innate talent. People who believe this somehow cut back the fact that Mozart, Darwin, Michal Jordan, and Tiger Woods practiced feverishly and single-mindedly for years, and instead believe that they were simply born with a talent that if on e is not born with cannot not be achieved regardless of how motivation or any other factor controllable (Dwek, 2002).Proponents of the first belief however, that motivation and not talent is the core ingredient for success, have developed various ways to bring that motivation to the classroom towards students academic achievement. One major school of thought is called progressive education. This approach is c visualiseed on the importance of the genuine interest of the students (Simmons Page, 2010). A students interest or motivation can stem from innumerable factors and vary depending on the student, of course. Researchers in the field have categorized stuent motivations into two categories intrinsic and extrinsic. A student who is intrinsically motivated commits him or herself to a task for its own sake, that is, for the enjoyment of it, the learning it allows, and for a feeling of accomplishment. A student who is extrinsically motivated comits to a task in order to receive a rewa rd from a source extraneous to him or herself such as from the teacher (mackintoshabudbud, Alba, Jestony, Dadis,Diaz, Realiza, Ventura, 2009).Understanding these different motivations is important when translating the theoretical ideas of the importance of motivating students into practical ways to do so.The Implications of Young Childrens Motivation to LearnMany young children begin school with a thirst for learning. Similarly, Goldberg (1994) pointed out that young children enthusiastically seek novel and challenging school tasks and therefore, motivation is key to successful school adjustment. Motivation can be defined as the process that helps instigate goal directed activity, and enables that activity to be maintained (Pintrich Schunk, 1996). optimistic motivational patterns are crucial for learning in early childhood as they are for later learning (Carlton Winsler, 1998). Intrinsic motivation refers to the desire to act in a task only for the pleasure derived from a task itself, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to the desire to participate in a task for the sake of a desirable outcome such as teacher praise or a reward (Pintrich Schunk, 1996). Gottfried (1985) hypothesized that academic intrinsic motivation is positively and significantly related to school achievement. Gottfried (1985) found that children, who are more intrinsically motivated, are more successful learners than those with more extrinsically motivated. Accordingly, inhibiting the development of intrinsic motivation in early childhood education and schools have been criticized (Broophy, 1998). It is noteworthy to first understand how motivation relates to education and how motivation affects the childrens social and academic competence. Similarly, Fortier (1995) examined the effects of autonomous academic motivation on perceived academic self-competence and perceived academic self-determination. He showed that perceived academic competence and perceived academic self-determination positively influenced autonomous academic motivation, which in turn had a positive impact on school and the development of intrinsic motivation. Moreover, Boggiano, Shields, Barrett, Thompson, Simons, and Katz (1992) found that motivational orientation is significantly related to childrens standardized achievement scores. Specifically, young students with an intrinsic motivational orientation got higher reading and math achievement scores than their classroom mates with extrinsic motivational orientation (Boggiano, et al., 1992). Together, this indicates that intrinsic motivational orientation contributes to a range of achievement-related behaviors and cognitions.School readiness as a multidimensional concept includes childrens approaches to learning (i.e., emergent literacy and math skills) (Kagan Neuman, 1997). Moreover, school readiness is a significant indication of a childs ability to be successful in school settings. In previous research with older children (e.g., Stipek, 19 98 Ryan Connell, 1989 Harter, 1992), motivation has showed as an important factor for learning, academic success, and social development. Similarly, Carlton (1999) showed that childrens motivation to learn is an important predictor of school readiness and the development of social skills.Another important alternative and complementary theoretical view of students motivation to learn in educational settings is achievement goal theory (Miserandino, 1998). Achievement goal theory provided insights in order to examine students motivation and achievement-related outcomes (Ames, 1992 Walters, 2004). Achievement goals can be defined as the purposes and reasons for a persons pursuit in achievement situation. Different purposes and reasons lead to different emotional, cognitive, and affective patterns (Dweck Leggett, 1988 Urdan Midgley, 2003). There have been considerable amount of researches (e.g., Elliot McGregor, 2001 Elliot Thrash, 2001) that showed the effects of achievement goal s on students motivation to learn. For example, Kaplan, Gheen, and Midgley (2002) examined the relationship between classroom goal structure and student disruptive behavior. They (2002) found that student perceptions of a mastery goal structure were related to lower incidence of behavioral problems and disruptive behaviors whereas student perceptions of a performance approach goal structure were related to higher incidence of behavioral problems and disruptive behaviors. Ames (1992) pointed out that mastery orientation is associated with depth engagement with the task and greater perseverance in the face of failure or barriers and thereby, mastery orientation increases the individuals intrinsic motivation, then in turn, motivation to learn.Previous researches examining childrens expectancy-related beliefs about different achievement tasks showed that childrens expectancy-related beliefs play a central role in their achievement motivation and contribute to their behavior and learning (Eccles et al., 1983 Meece Courtney, 1992). For example, young children who have positive ability beliefs and approach achievement tasks with a high expectancy of success, consistently show high levels of persistence and performance on achievement tasks (Eccles et al., 1983). Similarly, childrens expectancies and values themselves are most directly affected by childrens achievement goals, their self-schemata, and their task-specific beliefs. Values also influence students intentions and decisions about the course enrollment (Meece Courtney, 1992). Furthermore, values affect the perception of self-competence and self-esteem (Eccles et al.,1983). Accordingly, Dweck and Elliott (1983) posited that how learning and performance goals are determined by childrens subjective values. For instance, the kind of achievement situation the child is in influence the childs subjective values. The child, who believes he or she is competent at a certain task, believes that achievement of similar t asks in the future is possible and easy and so competence belief and expectancy for success are directly related (Eccles et al., 1983 Wigfield Eccles, 1992). For examples, achievement values in school tasks (i.e., mathematic) can influence self-perceptions of competence (Covington, 1992). Previous research also suggested that early achievement and socialization experiences and cultural norms can influence how elementary and high-school students understand, interpret, and approach achievement (Eccles et al. 1983 Meece, Parsons, Kaczala, Goff, Futterman, 1982). Similarly, studies of junior and senior high school students demonstrated that the subjective task values adolescents attach to school subjects are related to their course plans, activity choices ( Eccles, Adler, Meece, 1984 Meece, Wigfleld, Eccles, 1990). For example, in their study of junior high school students, Meece and colleagues (1990) found that the importance students attached to mathematics predicted their inten tions to continue taking mathematics. Eccles and Harold (1991) examined adolescents self-perceptions of ability, subjective task values, and activity choices in sports. They inform that adolescents self-reports of free time involvement in sports was significantly related to their subjective task values of sports. However, there is paucity of investigation of effects of motivation to learn on young childrens learning. Accordingly, focusing on young school childrens expectations and values using the expectancy-value model and the effects of may contribute to our understanding about childrens development of motivational values and expectancy and in early school years.A number of researchers (e.g., Stipek Mac Iver, 1989 Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, Midgley, 1991) also showed that young childrens beliefs about their ability and expectancies for success are overly optimistic and are not realistic. Young children perceive themselves as competent and they well-nigh always think t hat they will be successful on the upcoming tasks. However, as children progress through elementary school, their ability beliefs and expectancies for success may demonstrate a substantial change, and their beliefs about their ability and expectancies become more accurate and realistic (Stipek, 1984 Wigfleld Eccles, 1992). Although there can be age related differences in childrens motivational belief, perceived academic self-competence, perceived academic self-determination, the quality of teacher-student relationships, classroom achievement goal structure also play a significant role in young students motivation to learn and their motivational belief ( Eccles et al., 1983 Pianta, 1999 Stipek, 2002). Therefore, it is very crucial to further investigate and demonstrate the effects of aforementioned factors in young children motivation to learn, and in turn, how young childrens motivation to learn influence the development of social and academic competence.Teacher-Student Relationshi p and Young Childrens Motivation to LearnIt is widely recognized that when children enter school or transient to next level, they encounter a variety of new challenges. These include creating positive relationships with peer groups and adults in the school environment as well as learning to meet the demands of a wide range of cognitive, social, and academic tasks (Pianta et al., 1995 Birch Ladd, 1997 Baker, 2006). Teacher-child relationships play a prominent role in the development of competencies in the preschool and early school years (Hamre Pianta, 2001 Pianta Walsh, 1996). Teacher may operate as social agents, and they can affect the students intellectual and sociemotional experiences by creating a classroom setting that stimulates both students motivation and learning. Moreover teacher-student relationships serve as a regulatory function for the development of social, emotional, and academic skills (Davis, 2006). Similarly, young children who enjoy taking positive supports f rom teachers and having warm and close relationships with them appear to demonstrate social and academic competence at school (Pianta, 1999).A growing body of research examined the effects of the quality of teacher-student dyadic interaction on students academic motivation (e.g., Davis Ashley, 2003 Pianta, 1999). In fact, the degree to which children develop social and academic competencies in their school lives is a good power of successful school adaptation and positive teacher as well as peer relationship (Birch Ladd, 1997 Pianta, et. all., 1995). For example, Davis and Ashley (2003) reported that positive teacher-student interaction enhanced classroom learning and students motivation by building a safe and supportive context for students to motivate for learning and take intellectual risks. In addition, teachers believed that students tended to work hard if they liked their teachers and had sympathize with relations with their teachers. Therefore, teachers in Daviss and Ashle ys study (David Ashley, 2003) preferred to invest the time and effort for the development of supportive relations with their students. In addition, those positive and caring relations helped the teachers to be creative in their instruction.Accordingly, Davis (2006) found that middle school students and teachers, who perceived their relations as a supportive and positive, reported enhanced motivation, more facilitative classroom settings, and higher grades. Similarly, Birch and Ladd (1997) found that supportive teacher-student relationship plays an important role in developing school adjustment competencies including attention, motivation, problem-solving, and self esteem. Together, when teachers provided more autonomy and the instruction addressed students personal interest and personal relevance, they were more emotionally and behaviorally engaged in school works and they had more supportive relationships with their teachers. Similarly, those students, who reported higher levels o f autonomy provided by their teacher, showed more adaptive patterns of learning (David Ashley, 2003 Stipek, 2002).Accordingly, previous researches (e.g., Patrick, Hicks, Ryan, 1997 Patrick, Ryan, Kaplan, 2007 Ryan Patrick, 2001) have indicated that there is a significant relationship between students adaptive motivation for academics and a number of social factors within the classroom. These include teacher-student relationship, teacher support ( Midgley, Feldlaufer, Ecles, 1988), and teacher practices that foster respect among students ( Ryan Patrick, 2001 Patrick, Ryan, Kaplan, 2007). Similarly, Patrick, Anderman, Ryan, Edelin, and Midgley (2001) examined how teacher-student interaction influences both students classrooms goal-orientation structure. They found that teachers apparent support and enthusiasm toward students progress and their confidence in students ability to learn were accompanied by teachers recognition practices and their teaching styles. Their relationship s with students were characterized by supporting students academic engagement and heavy(a) warm praise. Teachers encouraged their students to focus on task and informational feedback. In mastery-approach classroom, all teachers perceived learning as active process in which classroom involvement, positive interactions, understanding (not memorization), student engagement are key requirements of student academic achievement and motivation. On the oth